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Sonny Rollins: The Saxophone Colossus Who Revolutionized Jazz

I love most genres of music, and jazz is one of my favorites, although I wish I knew more about the jazz greats, such as Sonny Rollins, one of the greatest jazz saxophonists ever. I really enjoyed researching his life and influence before his recent death.

Theodore Walter “Sonny” Rollins stands as one of the most influential and innovative saxophonists in the history of jazz. Born on September 7, 1930, in New York City, Rollins would spend decades reshaping the boundaries of his instrument and transforming the entire landscape of jazz music.

Rollins’ early life in Harlem, where he began his musical journey on piano before switching to the saxophone at age nine. By his teenage years, he was already studying the work of Coleman Hawkins and absorbing the bebop revolution that was reshaping jazz.

His recording career began in earnest in the early 1950s, and by the mid-1950s, Rollins had established himself as a major force in jazz. Albums like “Saxophone Colossus” (1956) became definitive works that showcased his emerging style. The album featured the now-iconic recording of “St. Thomas,” a calypso-inflected tune that demonstrated Rollins’ ability to bring fresh energy to musical material.

What set Rollins apart from his contemporaries was his approach to improvisation. Rather than relying primarily on harmonic sophistication, Rollins was a master of thematic development. He could take a simple melodic idea and spin it into elaborate variations, creating solos that were both intellectually rigorous and emotionally moving, which influenced generations of musicians who came after him.

Throughout the late 1950s and 1960s, Rollins created a remarkable body of work with collaborators including Miles Davis, John Coltrane, and Duke Ellington. His tenor saxophone voice was distinctive—full-bodied, assertive, and undeniably soulful. He recorded numerous landmark albums, including “Freedom Suite” (1958), a response to racial injustice in America, and “The Bridge” (1962), which marked his triumphant return to recording after a self-imposed sabbatical. This break from the music industry, during which he famously practiced on the Williamsburg Bridge in Brooklyn, demonstrated his commitment to artistic growth and his refusal to compromise his musical vision.

Rollins experimented with modal jazz, embraced world music influences, and remained engaged with the avant-garde developments in jazz even as he maintained his deep connection to the swing tradition. This balance between tradition and innovation, between accessibility and artistic challenge, made him a bridge figure in jazz history.

Beyond his instrumental prowess, Rollins earned respect for his integrity and his commitment to using his art for social commentary. His “Freedom Suite,” performed with drummer Max Roach, directly addressed the civil rights struggles of Black Americans.

Recognition of Rollins’ genius came through numerous accolades, including Grammy Awards, the National Medal of Arts, and induction into the DownBeat Hall of Fame. Universities honored him as a visiting artist and scholar. Yet perhaps his greatest achievement was his influence on fellow musicians. Virtually every saxophonist who came after him had to grapple with his innovations and find their own path in relation to his legacy.

Sonny Rollins’ career proved that jazz was a serious art form capable of profound expression, and that a musician dedicated to continual growth and experimentation could remain vital and relevant for an entire lifetime. Sonny Rollins stands as a monumental figure whose contributions to music and to human expression remain immeasurable.

Sonny Rollins died at his home in Woodstock, NY, on May 25, 2026, at the age of 95, after suffering from pulmonary fibrosis.

Today In Black History

• In 1863, Andrew Cailloux, a Black captain, led the First and Third Native Guard’s assaults on Rebel positions during a Civil War battle at Port Hudson, LA, helping the Union gain control of the Mississippi River. This was the longest military siege in American history.

• In 1873, Elijah McCoy patented his improved lubricating cup that lubricated the train engine when it ran out of steam.

• In 1890, Black inventor F.J. Ferrell patented a snow-melting apparatus.

• In 1963, Jomo Kenyatta was elected as the first Prime Minister and Founding Father of Kenya.

• In 1942, U.S.sailor and mess attendant Dorrie Miller became the first Black recipient of the Navy Cross for manning an anti-aircraft gun and, with no previous training in gunnery, shot down a number of Japanese planes during the attack on Pearl Harbor.

• In 1958, Ernest Green became the 1st African American to graduate from Central High School in Little Rock, AK.

• In 2023, Vice President Kamala Harris became the 1st woman to deliver the commencement address at the U.S.Military Academy graduation ceremony in West Point, New York.

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Issue #1,030 Today In Black History, Monday, May 25, 2026

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Formerly Enslaved Americans Create and Celebrate “Decoration Day”

This is an edited re-posting of an article we published on Memorial Day in 2022.

Memorial Day in the United States is observed on the last Monday of May. The sole purpose of Memorial Day is to honor those who died while serving in any branch of the military. 

Many people mistakenly use this day to remember those family members, friends, and colleagues who are veterans but died after their service was completed.

While those remembrances are nice, probably healing, and well-meaning, those people are not the ones we honor on Memorial Day.

I have many family members who served, including my father, my uncles, and several cousins. But they died after their service, often decades later. Veterans Day, observed every year on November 11, honors them and all veterans. 

The Origins of Memorial Day

Memorial Day was originally known as Decoration Day because it was observed immediately after the Civil War. People decorated the graves of those who died while in service with flags and flowers.

The Civil War claimed more lives than any other conflict in United States history and established the country’s first national cemeteries.

One of the earliest Decoration Day ceremonies was organized by a group of formerly enslaved people in Charleston, South Carolina, in May 1865, less than a month after the Confederacy surrendered.

At the time, the Washington Race Course and Jockey Club was transformed into a makeshift prison for Union soldiers captured by the Confederate Army. More than 260 Union soldiers died from disease and exposure, and their bodies were quickly buried in a mass grave behind the grandstands.

Almost immediately after the Confederate surrender at Appomattox, Virginia, former enslaved men and women exhumed the bodies from the mass grave in Charleston and reinterred them in a new cemetery.

On May 1, 1865, more than 10,000 people, including the formerly enslaved and white missionaries, staged a parade around the race track. The procession was led by 3,000 black schoolchildren carrying armloads of roses and singing the Union marching song “John Brown’s Body.”

The all-Black 54th Massachusetts regiment members were in attendance and performed double-time marches. 

This was the earliest recorded observation of Decoration Day in Charleston, South Carolina, the city where the Civil War began in April 1861 with the attack on Fort Sumter.

However, in 1996, the United States officially named Waterloo, New York, the “birthplace” of Memorial Day because, on May 5, 1866, Waterloo hosted a community-wide event during which businesses were closed, and residents decorated the graves of soldiers with flowers and flags.

The Evolution of Memorial Day

On May 5, 1868, General John A. Logan, then the leader of Northern Civil War veterans, called for a national day of remembrance for Civil War veterans. He chose May 30th as the official date because that date was not associated with any particular battle. By 1890, every state had declared May 30 a state holiday.

Today, nine southern states also officially recognize a Confederate Memorial Day, with events held on the birthday of Jefferson Davis, the president of the Confederacy.

Although initially meant to commemorate those soldiers lost in the Civil War, after the United States had many other wars, Memorial Day evolved to honor all military losses during all conflicts and wars, including Iraq and Afghanistan.

Memorial Day was not officially recognized nationally until the 1970s, when so many Americans died in Vietnam.

For over one hundred years, Memorial Day was observed on May 30, no matter the day of the week on which the date fell. However, in 1968, Congress passed the Uniform Monday Holiday Act, establishing Memorial Day as a federal holiday to be observed on the last Monday in May so that federal employees could have a 3-day weekend.

The change went into effect in 1971 and included Presidents’ Day, observed on the 3rd Monday in February, and Columbus Day, observed on the 2nd Monday in October. This is also the official Thanksgiving Day in Canada.

Later, Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Day was added as a remembrance on the 3rd Monday in January. In October 2021, President Joe Biden declared that the 2nd Monday in October would now be known as Indigenous Peoples’ Day while keeping Columbus Day as the name of the official federal holiday.

Columbus Day has been rightly renamed “Indigenous Peoples’ Day” by many states, and by President Joe Biden, to honor the original inhabitants of this land. Donald Trump tried to bring back “Columbus Day,” supposedly honoring a man who never set foot on the North American continent and is a known murderer, sexual abuser, and pedophile—just Trump’s kind of person.

Other official federal holidays, including New Year’s Day (January 1), Juneteenth (June 19), Independence Day (July 4), Thanksgiving (the last Thursday of November), and Christmas Day (December 25), are still observed on their original dates, no matter the day of the week on which they fall.

For over twenty years, the late Senator Daniel Inouye (D-HI), a decorated World War II veteran, unsuccessfully lobbied for Memorial Day to return to its original date of May 30.

How Memorial Day is Observed Today

The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier

• Since World War I, wearing a poppy on Memorial Day has been a tradition inspired by a poem written at the time.

• Most Memorial Day celebrations include parades by veterans and speeches by politicians, visits to cemeteries to “decorate” the graves of those lost in battle, and thousands of veterans making an annual pilgrimage to the Vietnam Veterans Memorial Wall in Washington, D.C.

• The official time for remembrance on Memorial Day is 3 pm.

• The President of the United States annually lays a wreath on the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier at Arlington National Cemetery in Washington, D.C. Since 1937, members of the 3rd U.S. Infantry Regiment have guarded the Tomb, taking exactly 21 steps in each direction. The “Old Guard,” as the soldiers are known, guards the Tomb 24/7, no matter the weather. 

• The American Flag should be hung at half-staff until noon, when it is raised back to the top.

• The Lincoln Memorial was dedicated on Memorial Day, 1922. The son and only surviving child of President Abraham Lincoln, 78-year-old Robert Todd Lincoln, attended the dedication ceremony.

• Memorial Day is also celebrated as the unofficial start of summer, with people having barbecues and picnics. It is the only warm-weather three-day weekend until Labor Day in September.

No matter how you feel about war overall, it is still a fact that over 1.3 million Americans have died while in service, and today is the day to honor them. The United States flag represents all of us, not just the vocal right-wing minority who try to declare only themselves as true patriots.

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On Sunday, May 17, 2026, hundreds of voting rights supporters once again marched across the Edmund Pettus Bridge in Selma, Alabama. This march was in response to the April 29, 2026, SCOTUS decision in Louisiana v. Callais, which concluded that using race as the primary factor in creating a second majority-minority district violates the 14th Amendment.

Edmund Winston Pettus (July 6, 1821 – July 27, 1907) was an American lawyer, politician, and military officer who represented Alabama in the United States Senate from 1897 to 1907. He first served as a senior officer of the Confederate States Army. After the war, he was Grand Dragon of the Ku Klux Klan, which terrorized and often killed African Americans.

The Edmund Pettus Bridge was named after him to memorialize his history of restraining and imprisoning African Americans in their quest for freedom after the Civil War.

The Department of Justice was instituted in 1870 primarily to find and arrest Ku Klux Klan members who were killing African Americans trying to exercise their right to vote.

A History of Voter Suppression and Solutions Throughout American History

The right to vote stands as a cornerstone of democracy, yet throughout American history, millions have been systematically prevented from exercising this fundamental right. Voter suppression has taken many forms, evolving across two and one-half centuries to maintain white power structures and limit political participation among marginalized communities.

The Early Era of Voter Suppression

From the nation’s founding, voting rights were restricted to white male property owners. Women were entirely excluded until the 19th Amendment in 1920, while Black Americans faced centuries of disenfranchisement. After the Civil War, Reconstruction-era policies briefly expanded voting rights, but the subsequent rise of Jim Crow laws in the South reintroduced systematic barriers, including literacy tests, poll taxes, and grandfather clauses. These mechanisms, though facially neutral, were deliberately designed to prevent Black citizens from voting while exempting white voters.

Twentieth-Century Tactics

The 20th century witnessed both persistence and evolution in voter suppression tactics. Literacy tests remained widespread despite widespread voter fraud and inconsistent administration. Poll taxes—fees required to vote—were weaponized against poor and minority voters. Grandfather clauses allowed individuals whose grandfathers could vote to bypass literacy tests, conveniently exempting most whites while excluding nearly all Black voters. Additionally, violence and intimidation through organizations like the Ku Klux Klan created a climate of fear that kept many from polling places.

Solutions and Legislative Response

The Civil Rights Movement catalyzed crucial legislative protections. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 represented a watershed moment, prohibiting literacy tests and requiring federal approval for changes to voting laws in jurisdictions with histories of discrimination. This landmark legislation, combined with the 24th Amendment, which eliminated poll taxes, removed many formal barriers. The National Voter Registration Act of 1993 further expanded access by requiring voter registration opportunities at various public agencies.

Modern Voter Suppression and Contemporary Solutions

Despite legal protections, voter suppression persists in modern forms. Voter ID laws, purges of voter rolls, limited polling locations in minority neighborhoods, and reduced early voting periods create new barriers—often disproportionately affecting communities of color and elderly voters. The Supreme Court’s 2013 Shelby County decision weakened the Voting Rights Act, eliminating preclearance requirements that had prevented discriminatory voting changes.

The latest Supreme Court decision on the Louisiana voter suppression/redistricting case is Louisiana v. Callais, decided on April 29, 2026.

The Ruling (6-3 Vote): The Court struck down Louisiana’s congressional map that created a second majority-Black district, calling it an “unconstitutional racial gerrymander.”

This case represents a major shift in voting rights law, significantly weakening protections that have been in place for decades.

Almost immediately, several southern states, all former Confederate states, started reworking their districts to dilute or eliminate Black representation.

These two Supreme Court decisions have all but obliterated the 1965 Voting Rights Act, but people are fighting back hard.

Contemporary solutions include comprehensive voting reform proposals. Automatic voter registration would remove administrative obstacles, while expanding early and mail-in voting provides flexibility and accessibility. Protecting voting rights for formerly incarcerated individuals restores political voice to communities historically targeted by the criminal justice system. States and advocacy organizations have also worked to prevent arbitrary voter roll purges and ensure adequate polling locations in underserved areas. Federal voting rights legislation, including the John Lewis Voting Rights Act, aims to restore protections weakened by recent court decisions.

When the Democrats regain the majority in the House after the 2026 midterms, restoring voting rights will be high on their agenda.

Today In Black History

• In 1861, North Carolina became the 11th and last state to secede from the Union.

• In 1868, P.B.S. Pinchback and James J. Harris served as delegates to the Republican National Convention, becoming the first Black people to hold national political positions.

• In 1890, John Stephens Durham was named U.S. Consul to the Dominican Republic.

• In 1942, the U.S. Navy first permitted Black recruits to serve.

• In 1958, Robert Nelson C. Nix was elected as the first Blacks Congressman from Philadelphia.

• In 1961, a white mob attacked the Freedom Riders in Montgomery, Alabama, causing Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, Sr. to send in the National Guard.

• In 2000, Octavia E. Butler’s “Parable of the Talents” won the 1999 Nebula Award for Best Novel.

• In 2008, Senator Barack Obama (D-IL) obtained the majority of pledged delegates in the Democratic Primary.

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Dr. Jane Cooke Wright stands as one of the most remarkable pioneers in medical science and cancer research. Born on November 30, 1919, this trailblazing African American physician revolutionized how the world approaches cancer treatment. Her groundbreaking work in chemotherapy research continues to influence oncology practice today.

Jane’s father, Dr. Louis Tompkins Wright, was himself a renowned surgeon and a pioneering figure in African American medicine. Jane developed a deep passion for medicine and a commitment to advancing human health. She earned her medical degree from New York Medical College in 1945, at a time when the medical field was overwhelmingly male and predominantly white.

Dr. Wright’s most significant contributions came through her innovative work in cancer chemotherapy during the 1950s and 1960s. While many researchers were focused on radiation and surgery as primary cancer treatments, she boldly pursued the potential of chemical compounds to fight the disease. She developed new methods for testing cancer drugs and pioneered the use of methotrexate and other chemotherapy agents to treat various cancers.

Perhaps most impressively, she achieved remarkable remission rates in childhood leukemia—a disease that was previously considered essentially untreatable. Her work gave hope to families and transformed cancer from what seemed like an inevitable death sentence into a disease that could be managed and, in many cases, overcome.

Beyond her laboratory achievements, Dr. Wright was a dedicated clinical physician and educator. She served as an associate professor of surgery at New York Medical College and was the director of the cancer research foundation at her institution. She believed that research should ultimately serve humanity, and she never lost sight of the human beings behind the statistics and medical data.

Dr. Wright was named one of the top ten women physicians in the United States and received the Mademoiselle magazine award for outstanding achievement. Her research was published in prestigious medical journals and presented at international conferences. However, what truly defined her legacy was the impact of her work on actual patient outcomes and the doors she opened for other African American physicians and women in medicine.

Throughout her career, Dr. Wright faced discrimination and obstacles that many of her white, male counterparts never encountered. Yet she used those barriers as motivation to excel and to prove that talent, dedication, and intelligence know no color or gender. She became a mentor to younger physicians and actively worked to create opportunities for underrepresented groups in medicine.

Dr. Jane Cooke Wright retired from active practice in 1967 but continued to influence the medical field through her legacy. She passed away on January 26, 2013, at the age of 93, leaving behind a lifetime of achievements that fundamentally changed cancer treatment. Her innovative approach to chemotherapy, her dedication to clinical excellence, and her unwavering commitment to advancing medicine for all people make her an inspiring figure in both the history of medicine and the history of African American achievement.

Today In Black History

• In 1652, Rhode Island enacted the first law declaring slavery illegal.

• In 1869, Robert Tanner Freeman became the 1st African American to graduate from Harvard Dental School.

• In 1896, the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Plessy v. Ferguson upheld the doctrine of “separate but equal” in education and public accommodations and began the age of “Jim Crow.”

• In 1983, the U.S. Senate revised the immigration laws, giving millions of illegal aliens legal status under an amnesty program.

• In 1991, the Republic of Somaliland declared independence from Somalia.

• In 2000, the South Carolina General Assembly voted to remove the Confederate flag from the dome in the capital of South Carolina.

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From before the founding of the United States through the Civil War, enslaved Africans didn’t just accept their lot in life. Many used various strategies and schemes to gain freedom for themselves and their families.

Hercules Posey was one of those enslaved people. He was the official presidential chef who outsmarted his owner, President George Washington, and asserted his own freedom in Philadelphia, then the capital of the United States.

He commanded a kitchen with the authority of a general. He dressed like a gentleman, walked with the confidence of a free man, and cooked meals that dazzled the elite of a new nation. Yet Hercules Posey was enslaved — the property of George Washington, the very man who proclaimed liberty as America’s founding ideal. His story is one of extraordinary talent, quiet resistance, and an act of defiance that Washington never forgot.

Hercules came to Mount Vernon as an enslaved field worker, but by the late 1780s, he had become Washington’s head chef, overseeing the preparation of elaborate meals for one of America’s most powerful households. When Washington assumed the presidency and moved to Philadelphia — then the nation’s capital — Hercules moved with him, running the kitchen at the President’s House on High Street.

Contemporary accounts describe him as a commanding presence: immaculately dressed in a blue cloth coat, a long white apron, and a black velvet cap. He was known to scold kitchen workers who crossed him and to move through the city’s markets with an air of authority that turned heads. To those who didn’t know his status, he could easily have been mistaken for a prosperous free man of Philadelphia.

Washington trusted Hercules to an unusual degree. He was granted the rare privilege of selling kitchen drippings and leftover scraps from the presidential kitchen, pocketing the profits for himself. This income allowed him to dress well and move about the city with a degree of independence nearly unheard of for enslaved people of the era. He used that freedom wisely — gathering information, cultivating contacts, and quietly building the conditions for something larger.

What Washington likely did not consider was that his own laws would work against him. Pennsylvania had passed the Gradual Abolition Act of 1780, which stated that any enslaved person residing in the state for six consecutive months would be legally entitled to freedom. To prevent this, Washington rotated his enslaved staff back to Virginia before that threshold could be reached — a calculated move to maintain his human property while appearing to honor Pennsylvania law. Hercules was subject to these rotations.

So on February 22, 1797 — George Washington’s 65th birthday — Hercules vanished. He walked away from Mount Vernon while Washington himself was in Philadelphia, and he was never found. It was a masterpiece of planning.

Washington was stunned. But he was gone — almost certainly to Philadelphia, where he had connections and could blend into the city’s substantial free Black community.

In the years that followed, a visitor to Mount Vernon reportedly asked Hercules’s young daughter, Evey, if she was sad her father had left. She replied that she was glad — because her father was now free.

For generations, Hercules Posey was a footnote in Washington’s story. Now he is recognized as a man who managed his own circumstances. Hercules Posey did not wait to be freed. He freed himself.

Today In Black History

• In 1626, Dutch colonist Peter Minuit organized the purchase of Manhattan Island for 60 gilders of goods from the Canarsie Indians of the Lenape.

• In 1787, African Lodge No. 459 was organized in Boston, MA, with Prince Hall as Master.

• In 1794, General Toussaint Louverture switched sides and ambushed his former Spanish allies at Saint-Raphaël in Haiti.

• In 1861, Arkansas and Tennessee became the 9th and 10th states to secede from the United States.

• In 1886, Black inventor M.A. Cherry patented the tricycle.

• In 1960, President Eisenhower signed the Civil Rights Act.

• In 1967, four hundred students seized the administration building at HBCU Cheney State College in Pennsylvania.

• In 1969, Howard Lee was elected mayor of Chapel Hill, NC, becoming the first Black person elected mayor of a predominantly white North Carolina city in modern times.

• In 1994, Nelson Mandela and the African National Congress (ANC) were confirmed the winners in South Africa’s first post-apartheid election.

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James Baskett: A Trailblazing Life in the Shadows of Hollywood

Unlike my husband and younger daughter, who practically live at the movies, I am not really a movie-goer. I only see about 2-3 movies a year in the theaters. I’ve recently seen “Michael,” “Avatar,” and of course “Sinners,” which I saw twice in the theater. Very unusual for me.

Today, the work of Black actors and directors is much more prevalent, and Black production companies are making very successful films meant for general audiences.

However, through my studies in Black history, I do know that until the late 1960s, almost all of the roles by the major studios relegated Black actors to stereotypical representations. “Lilies of the Field,” released in 1963, was one of the exceptions. It starred Sydney Poitier, who became the first Black actor to win the Academy Award for Best Actor.

In 1948, James Baskett became the first Black actor to receive an honorary award for his role in the controversial movie, “Song of the South.”

James Baskett was born on February 16, 1904, in Indianapolis, Indiana. He grew up with a passion for performance that expressed itself early. He worked steadily in Black theater and radio before making his way to Hollywood, where opportunities for African American actors were severely limited, often reduced to demeaning stereotypes or outright exclusion.

In the 1930s and early 1940s, Baskett found consistent work on radio and in small film roles, gradually building a reputation as a skilled, versatile performer. He was particularly acclaimed for his comedic timing and his warm, expressive voice — qualities that would eventually define his most famous role. He also appeared in a number of films produced specifically for Black audiences, known as “race films,” which allowed African American performers to play full, complex human beings rather than the caricatures mainstream Hollywood typically offered.

His crowning achievement came in 1946, when Walt Disney cast him as Uncle Remus in Song of the South, a live-action and animated hybrid film based loosely on the Uncle Remus stories by Joel Chandler Harris. Baskett anchored the film with a performance that transcended the material. He also provided the voice of the animated character Br’er Fox, demonstrating his remarkable range within a single production. The film’s centerpiece song, “Zip-a-Dee-Doo-Dah,” became one of the most recognizable tunes in Disney history, winning the Academy Award for Best Original Song.

The following year, at the 20th Academy Awards ceremony in 1948, James Baskett received an honorary Oscar — presented by actress Ingrid Bergman — in recognition of his “able and heart-warming characterization” of Uncle Remus. He was the first African American male actor ever to receive an Academy Award of any kind. The honor was deeply meaningful, even as it arrived with painful ironies: Baskett had been unable to attend the film’s Atlanta premiere because, as a Black man, he was not welcome in the segregated theaters where it screened. This was the same rejection that Hattie McDaniel, the first Black actor to win an Oscar, experienced in 1940 when she was denied entry to the theater at the premiere of “Gone With The Wind” in Atlanta. McDaniel received an Oscar for Best Supporting Actress.

James Baskett’s health had been deteriorating for some time. He suffered from a serious heart condition and diabetes, and the physical demands of his later career took a toll. The Oscar came just months before his death. James Baskett passed away on July 9, 1948, in Los Angeles, at just 44 years old. He died before he could fully witness the legacy he had created.

In the decades since, Song of the South has become a deeply controversial film, with entirely valid criticisms for its romanticized portrayal of the post-Civil War South and its racial stereotypes. Disney has declined to give the film a wide release since 1986. Yet, Baskett brought humanity and grace to the role while enduring the systemic inequality that would have defeated many others.

Today In Black History

• In 1818, the Netherlands and Britain signed a treaty to combat the slave trade.

• In 1891, Black Dr. Daniel Hale Williams founded the Provident Hospital and Training School in Chicago, the first Black-owned and operated hospital in the United States.

• In 1896, Black Cowboy Bill Pickett was credited with inventing “Bull Dogging,” the skill of grabbing cattle by the horns and wrestling them to the ground.

• In 1897, Black inventor J.W. Smith received a patent for a lawn sprinkler.

• In 1959, Black singer Ella Fitzgerald won the Grammy for Best Jazz Performance at the first Grammy Awards.

• In 1961, the CORE (Congress for Racial Equality) organization began the “Freedom Rides” from Washington, D.C., designed to test the South’s compliance with the Interstate Commerce Commission’s desegregation order.

• In 1970, Black playwright Charles Gordone won the Pulitzer Prize for his 1969 play, “No Place to Be Somebody.”

  ---

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Frederick Lamar McGhee, born into slavery, was Minnesota’s first African American lawyer, its most consequential early civil rights leader, a renowned orator, and a criminal defense lawyer famous for his courtroom victories. His break with Booker T. Washington and subsequent alliance with W. E. B. Du Bois led to the founding of the Niagara Movement and then the NAACP.

Frederick McGhee was born on October 28, 1861, in Aberdeen, MS. Both of his parents died young, so as a teenager Fredrick followed his brothers, Matthew and Barclay, to Chicago.

In Chicago McGhee was an attorney in the offices of Chicago’s most distinguished Black lawyer, Edward H. Morris. He also met and married the Kentucky-born Mattie Crane.

In 1889, probably at the insistence of St. Paul newspaper publisher John Q. Adams, McGhee moved to St. Paul. When admitted to the bar in June, he became Minnesota’s first African American lawyer.

McGhee became a passionate defender of civil rights during a particularly challenging era. He was instrumental in organizing and leading the Afro-American League of Minnesota, an early civil rights organization dedicated to combating discrimination and advocating for equal treatment under the law. Through this organization and his legal work, he challenged unjust laws and practices that disenfranchised African Americans, particularly addressing issues of voting rights, employment discrimination, and access to public accommodations.

This was the Jim Crow era, and McGhee participated in every national civil rights organization that strove to find a way to fight racial discrimination. The most prominent of these at the turn of the century was the National Afro-American Council, for which he served as an officer. He arranged for its 1902 convention to be held in St. Paul, and for Booker T. Washington, the preeminent Black leader of the time, to attend. However, as Washington took control of the organization. McGhee publicly broke with him in 1903, and was soon joined by W. E. B. DuBois. With other dissenters, they formed, in 1905, the Niagara Movement, which advocated immediate and full equality of Black Americans. In 1909, Niagara morphed into the NAACP, led by DuBois.

One of McGhee’s most notable contributions was his involvement in cases challenging the separate-but-equal doctrine that had taken hold in American law. He understood that legal segregation was fundamentally unjust and worked tirelessly to expose its inherent inequality. His legal arguments anticipated civil rights positions that would gain broader acceptance decades later, demonstrating remarkable foresight and moral clarity.

McGhee believed that the Constitution’s promises of equal protection and due process should apply to all Americans, regardless of race. His ability to articulate the case for civil rights in compelling, accessible language made him an effective advocate both in and out of the courtroom.

In his personal life, McGhee was a family man (he and his wife had one adopted daughter), a churchgoer, a homeowner (in Frogtown, near the corner of University and Dale), and the owner of a cabin on the Apple River in Wisconsin. It was there in the summer of 1912 that he suffered an accident that led to a blood clot, and then an embolism that killed him a few weeks short of his fifty-first birthday.

McGhee was also an eloquent writer and public speaker who used his platform to educate the public about the injustices facing African Americans. He published articles, delivered speeches, and engaged in public debates, always maintaining a thoughtful, reasoned approach while refusing to compromise on fundamental principles. His ability to articulate the case for civil rights in compelling, accessible language made him an effective advocate both in and out of the courtroom.

Frederick Lamar McGhee passed away in 1912, but his legacy endures as a testament to the power of individual courage and professional excellence in the service of justice. He demonstrated that African American lawyers could command respect in their field and use their legal knowledge to advance the cause of racial equality. His pioneering efforts helped establish a tradition of Black legal activism that would grow stronger throughout the twentieth century.

Today In Black History

• In 1845, Macon B. Allen and Robert Morris, Jr. became the first African Americans to open a law practice in the United States.

• In 1854, Ashmun Institute (later Lincoln University) received its charter from the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, becoming the 1st Black degree-granting college in the United States.

• In 1890, Black inventor Henry Faulkner patented the ventilated shoe, placing holes in specific locations within the shoe, allowing for adequate circulation and greater comfort.

• In 1967, Aretha Franklin released the single “Respect,” written by Otis Redding, which was the Billboard Song of the Year.

• In 1968, Rev. Ralph Abernathy, in his role as president of the SCLS, began the Poor People’s Campaign, leading a delegation of leaders representing poor whites, Black, Native Americans, and Latinos to Capitol Hill for conferences with cabinet members and congressional leaders.

• In 1977, author Alex P. Haley won the Pulitzer Prize for his book “Roots.”

• In 1983, Harold Washington was sworn in as the first Black mayor of Chicago, IL.

• In 1992, the L.A. riots began, sparked by the acquittal of four white police officers in the beating of Rodney King. There were about 50 deaths and up to $1 Billion in property damage.

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Abraham Lincoln, The Man, the Myth, and the Complicated Truth

Abraham Lincoln, the 16th President of the United States, is one of the most mythologized figures in American history. He is invoked as the Great Emancipator, the savior of the Union, a man who gave his life so that a nation conceived in liberty might live up to its promise. All of that is true — and yet the full portrait of Lincoln is considerably more complicated, especially when viewed through the lens of Black history.

Like most of you, I was taught that Abraham Lincoln was one of our greatest presidents and that he should be revered without question. However, as a retired educator specializing in English, history, and government, I have learned more about President Lincoln’s political views.

Today’s Republicans, especially the MAGA Republicans, like to “remind us” that Lincoln was a Republican, but they conveniently forget to mention that the Republicans of the late 19th and early 20th centuries were completely different from the Republicans of the latter 20th century and beyond.

The Republican Party emerged in the Midwest (specifically Ripon, Wisconsin, and Jackson, Michigan) as a direct response to the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which threatened to expand slavery into Western territories.

Led by its first elected president, Abraham Lincoln (1861–1865), the GOP successfully guided the Union through the Civil War and spearheaded the abolition of slavery.

During Reconstruction, “Radical Republicans” pushed for civil and voting rights for newly freed African Americans.

Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809, in a log cabin in Hardin County, Kentucky. His family relocated to Indiana and later to Illinois, always in search of better land and better odds. His mother died when he was nine; his formal schooling totaled less than a year. What Lincoln lacked in education, he made up for in relentless self-teaching, reading borrowed books by firelight until he could argue law with the best-trained attorneys in Illinois.

He taught himself enough to pass the bar in 1836 and built a thriving legal practice in Springfield. He married Mary Todd in 1842, entered national politics as a congressman, and eventually became the unlikely Republican nominee for president in 1860 — a one-term congressman whose greatest asset was that he had made fewer enemies than anyone else.

Lincoln’s presidency began before he was even inaugurated. Seven Southern states had already seceded by the time he took the oath of office in March 1861, and the Confederate attack on Fort Sumter in April ignited four years of civil war.

Lincoln was a masterful wartime leader — patient, strategic, and willing to bear enormous personal grief while projecting public resolve. He held together a fractious coalition of generals, Cabinet members, and congressional factions. He absorbed military disasters and kept fighting. He understood that the war’s purpose had to expand beyond restoring the old Union if the North was going to sustain the will to win.

But Lincoln was explicit, even blunt, about his priorities. In an 1862 letter to newspaper editor Horace Greeley, he wrote: “If I could save the Union without freeing any slave, I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves, I would do that.” The Union came first. Slavery’s fate was a strategic calculation as much as a moral one.

When Lincoln first called for men to join the Union Army in 1861, he specifically disallowed any Black people, free or slave, to join the military, because that would mean giving them arms that could have been used against white people.

Lincoln’s personal views on race were a product of his time and place — that is, they were not abolitionist views. He found slavery morally wrong and said so, repeatedly. He called it an injustice that mocked America’s founding ideals. But on the other hand, for much of his adult life, he did not believe in racial equality or in Black citizenship.

In his famous 1858 debates against Stephen Douglas, Lincoln was direct: “I am not, nor ever have been, in favor of bringing about in any way the social and political equality of the white and Black races.” For years, he supported a plan to colonize freed Black Americans in Africa or Central America — a position that many Black leaders, including Frederick Douglass, vigorously and publicly rejected.

Through the Emancipation Proclamation that took effect on January 1, 1863, Lincoln freed enslaved people only in Confederate-held territories — not in the border states that had remained loyal to the Union. It was, at its core, a war measure designed to destabilize the Confederacy and encourage enslaved people to flee or resist.

And yet, Lincoln’s views evolved. By 1864 and 1865, he was privately and publicly supporting limited Black voting rights. Douglass, who met Lincoln three times, ultimately called him “the first great man that I talked with in the United States freely.” The Thirteenth Amendment, which was ratified to completely abolish slavery, was pushed through Congress with Lincoln’s active involvement.

Lincoln did not free Black Americans out of the conviction that they deserved equal humanity — at least not initially. He freed them because it helped win a war, and then found that his moral compass was catching up to his political decisions. That arc matters. It is not a story of a saint; it is a story of a politician who grew — imperfectly, incompletely, but consequentially — under the pressure of history. Black Americans did not wait for Lincoln to free them; they seized freedom themselves in enormous numbers and forced the question onto Lincoln’s desk. That truth belongs at the center of any honest reckoning with his legacy.

Today In Black History

• In 1877, President Rutherford B. Hayes removed federal troops from Louisiana, ending Reconstruction.

• In 1903, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the clauses in the Alabama constitution that disfranchised Black Americans.

• In 1903, Maggie Lena Walker was named president of the St. Luke Bank and Trust, which she founded in Richmond, Virginia, becoming the first Black woman to head an American bank.

• In 1960, the African nation of Togo gained its independence from France.

• In 1961, the African nation of Sierra Leone gained independence from Great Britain.

• In 1964, the African countries of Tanganyika and Zanzibar merged to form Tanzania.

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Celia Cruz: The Queen of Salsa and an Enduring Legend

Celia Cruz stands as one of the most influential and iconic figures in Latin American music history. Born Úrsula Stella Isabela Martínez Imbert on October 21, 1925, in Havana, Cuba, she would become the undisputed “Queen of Salsa,” a title earned through her extraordinary voice, charismatic presence, and unrelenting passion for music.

From her early days, Celia demonstrated exceptional vocal talent. She studied music theory and voice at the Havana Conservatory, honing the skills that would eventually captivate audiences worldwide. Her breakthrough came in the 1950s when she joined the Sonora Matancera, one of Cuba’s most famous orchestras. For fifteen years, she served as their vocalist, recording numerous hit songs and becoming a household name throughout Latin America. Her powerful mezzo-soprano voice, capable of conveying both vulnerability and tremendous strength, set her apart from her contemporaries.

In 1960, following the Cuban Revolution, Celia made the difficult decision to leave her homeland. She emigrated to the United States, a move that proved transformative for both her career and the trajectory of salsa music globally. Despite the pain of exile and the challenges faced by Cuban immigrants, she refused to stop singing. Instead, she channeled her experiences into her music, creating performances infused with emotional depth and cultural authenticity.

The 1970s and 1980s marked the golden era of Celia’s career. Her collaboration with the legendary orchestra leader Tito Puente produced some of the most memorable salsa recordings of all time. Together, they created a synergy that elevated salsa music to unprecedented heights of popularity and artistic achievement. Albums like “Celia & Johnny,” recorded with Johnny Pacheco, and her numerous other collaborations solidified her status as the premier female voice of salsa. Her energetic performances, characterized by her infectious enthusiasm and signature catchphrase “¡Azúcar!” (Sugar!) became legendary.

Celia Cruz was a trailblazer who paved the way for Latina performers in an industry that often marginalized them. Her influence extended far beyond salsa; she participated in projects spanning multiple genres, collaborating with artists from diverse musical backgrounds and proving the universal appeal of her artistry.

Celia’s cultural impact was profound and multifaceted. She remained deeply connected to her Cuban heritage and the broader Latino community throughout her life. She used her platform to advocate for Cuban and Latino visibility in American popular culture during a time when such representation was limited. Her unwavering pride in her roots, despite decades of exile, made her an emblem of cultural resilience for millions.

Throughout her life, Celia received numerous accolades, including Grammy Awards, a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, and countless honors from governments and cultural organizations. She performed well into her eighth decade, never compromising the quality of her performances or the infectious energy that defined her stage presence.

Celia Cruz passed away on July 16, 2003, but her legacy remains vibrantly alive. She will forever be remembered as the Queen of Salsa, a pioneering artist who enriched the cultural landscape and proved that true artistry knows no limits.

It was recently announced that Celia Cruz will be inducted into the 2026 Rock ’n’ Roll Hall of Fame.

Today In Black History

• On September 9, 1739, the first and largest recorded slave uprising in the British mainland colonies occurred near Stono, South Carolina.

• In 1868, Oscar James Dunn was elected Lieutenant Governor of Louisiana.

• In 1884, the U.S. recognized King Leopold III’s Congo Free State.

• In 1919, Black inventor S.H. Love patented improvements to the military gun.

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Born on December 13, 1955, in Brooklyn, New York, Lanny Smoot has become one of the most prolific Black inventors in American history, with over 100 patents to his name. His journey to the pinnacle of technological innovation at The Walt Disney Company is a testament to curiosity, perseverance, and the power of believing in oneself.

Lanny’s fascination with invention began at just five years old when his father brought home a bell, a battery, some wire, and a light bulb—simple but transformative gifts. He spent his childhood dismantling electronics, tinkering with parts, and entering science fairs, always eager to understand how things worked.

Growing up in Brooklyn’s Brownsville neighborhood, he faced circumstances that could have limited his dreams. But he had something more valuable: parents who believed in him unconditionally. “I had parents that were always ultra-supportive,” Smoot said, crediting them as “the common denominator in success in life.”

A pivotal moment came in high school when a guidance counselor saw potential in young Lanny and directed him toward Brooklyn Technical High School to pursue electrical engineering, rather than his original plan. This intervention changed everything. After graduating from Brooklyn Tech, Smoot earned a full scholarship to Columbia University, where he completed both his bachelor’s and master’s degrees in electrical engineering.

In 1978, Smoot began his career at Bell Labs, where he worked for two decades. His mentors included James West, the Black co-inventor of the electric microphone. During his time at Bell Labs and later at Bellcore (founded after the Bell System breakup), Smoot made groundbreaking contributions to telecommunications technology, including pioneering work on fiber-optic transmission and early video-on-demand systems. He invented the “VideoWindow,” the first high-quality, large-screen video teleconferencing system, which was later showcased at the Smithsonian Institution’s “Information Age” exhibit. He also created the “Electronic Panning Camera,” which enabled remote camera control and view adjustment—an invention that would eventually catch Disney's eye.

In 1998, Disney representatives discovered Smoot’s Electronic Panning Camera prototype and were so impressed with the inventor himself that they wanted to hire him to lead their research department. For the past 25 years, Smoot has served as a Disney Research Fellow and a member of Walt Disney Imagineering—the company's highest technical honor. Under his leadership and innovation, 74 of his 106 total patents have been created.

At Disney, Smoot’s work has bridged the gap between cutting-edge technology and imaginative storytelling.

Legendary Inventions

Some of Lanny Smoot’s most iconic inventions include:

• The Floating Madame Leota – The levitating crystal ball effect in the Séance Room at the Haunted Mansion at Disneyland Park, one of the most beloved effects in Disney history

• Live-Action Lightsabers – The extendable, realistic lightsabers used in Disney Live Entertainment and the Star Wars: Galactic Starcruiser experience

• Interactive Attractions – Including “Where’s the Fire?” at EPCOT (2004-2014), which taught guests about fire safety while exploring hidden dangers in their own homes

• The HoloTile Floor – “The world’s first multi-person, omnidirectional, modular, expandable, treadmill floor,” allowing shared virtual reality experiences

• Interactive Koi Ponds – Virtual and interactive koi ponds at the Crystal Lotus Restaurant at Hong Kong Disneyland Hotel

• Fortress Explorations – An immersive adventure at Tokyo DisneySea

• Magic Playfloor – Interactive game experiences on Disney Cruise Lines

In 2021, Lanny Smoot achieved something no one else at Disney had ever done: earning his 100th patent. This milestone underscores his status as one of the most prolific inventors in American history. The breadth of his work—spanning theatrical technologies, special effects, ride systems, interactive experiences, and cutting-edge displays—demonstrates the scope of his vision and expertise.

Recognition and Honors

Smoot’s contributions have earned him numerous accolades, including:

• 1973 – National Achievement Scholarship Award

• 1987 – Most Promising Engineer Award at the first Black Engineer of the Year Awards (BEYA)

• 1996 – New Jersey Inventors Hall of Fame Inventor of the Year

• 2020 – TEA Master Award from the Themed Entertainment Association (the highest recognition for theatrical technology)

• 2024 – Inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame, becoming only the second individual from The Walt Disney Company to receive this honor (after Walt Disney himself)

Beyond his technical achievements, Smoot is deeply committed to inspiring young people, particularly Black youth and students of color, to pursue careers in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and math). He has served as a judge for innovation challenges at Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) through Disney on the Yard, and actively mentors diverse young people entering the technology field.

“I can be a role model that inspires young kids of all races,” Smoot said, “but especially folks who usually don’t see role models as looking like them.” His story—from a working-class kid in Brooklyn to one of the world’s most prolific inventors—is powerful proof that dreams are achievable with support, curiosity, and determination.

Today, Lanny Smoot continues to innovate and invent. He keeps a notebook beside him almost always, jotting down ideas for new inventions. “Practice what you love,” he advises. “As soon as you latch onto something you love, do it, and do it a lot. Be brave.”

Today In Black History

• In 1871, the Third Enforcement Act defined Klan conspiracy as a rebellion against the United States and empowered the president to suspend the writ of habeas corpus and declare martial law in rebellious areas.

• In 1971, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled unanimously that busing was a constitutionally acceptable method of integrating public schools.

• In 1982, world-renowned opera singer Leontyne Price opened a convention of the Daughters of the American Revolution.

• In 1999, Rosa Parks was awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor for inspiring the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott by refusing to give up her seat on a bus to a white man.

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Dr. Wendy Okolo: From Lagos to the Frontiers of Aerospace

With the successful Artemis II space mission, which included a diverse group of astronauts, it is a good time to learn about Black people, especially Black women, who have contributed to NASA’s successes.

Even though my parents were both scientists, I barely passed high school biology and abhorred cutting up frogs. In college, I was an English major. Science was never “my thing,” so I have enormous respect for people like today’s person in Black history.

Dr. Wendy A. Okolo is a Nigerian-American aerospace research engineer in the Intelligent Systems Division at NASA Ames Research Center. She is the first Black woman to obtain a Ph.D. in aerospace engineering from the University of Texas at Arlington.

Born and raised in Lagos, she attended St. Mary’s Primary School and Queen’s College, one of Nigeria’s most respected all-girls secondary schools, before heading to the United States to pursue aerospace engineering. It was a bold leap — from Lagos to one of the most demanding fields in STEM. She credits her sisters, who taught her the sciences through their day-to-day realities, as her heroes.

She received a bachelor’s degree in aerospace engineering from the University of Texas at Arlington (UTA) in 2010, where she served as president of the Society of Women Engineers. As an undergraduate, she interned at Lockheed Martin on the Orion spacecraft, NASA’s crew exploration vehicle designed to facilitate human exploration beyond low Earth orbit.

At just 26, she became the first Black woman to earn a Ph.D. in aerospace engineering from the University of Texas at Arlington in 2015. Her graduate studies were recognized and funded by the U.S. Department of Defense through the National Defense Science and Engineering Graduate Fellowship, Zonta International through the Amelia Earhart Fellowship, the American Institute for Aeronautics and Astronautics, and the Texas Space Grant Consortium.

Dr. Okolo’s technical contributions span some of the most consequential areas in modern aerospace. Her expertise is in flight dynamics, vehicle controls, and systems health monitoring, exemplified by her work with the U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory on aircraft formation flight and the Advanced Development Programs of Lockheed Martin (Skunkworks) on performance-optimizing control for the F-35C aircraft.

At NASA, her research has pushed boundaries in flight safety and autonomous systems. She was the controls lead on a NASA early-career team that won $2.5 million to develop innovative techniques to guide and control an unconventional spacecraft, and she holds a U.S. patent for aerospace vehicle flight-path control. Her research includes developing advanced systems that enable aircraft and drones to detect faults early, making aviation smarter, safer, and more reliable.

At NASA, Dr. Okolo has been honored with the NASA Exceptional Technology Achievement Medal, the NASA Ames Award for Researcher/Scientist, and the NASA Ames Early Career Researcher Award — becoming the first woman ever to receive that last honor. Beyond NASA, she is also a recipient of the Women in Aerospace Award for Initiative, Inspiration & Impact, and the Black Engineer of the Year Award for Most Promising Engineer in U.S. Government.

Dr. Okolo’s impact reaches far beyond engineering equations and flight simulations. She served as the NASA Ames Special Emphasis Programs Manager for women, ensuring the recruitment, retention, and promotion of women. Her initiatives include creating nursing rooms for mothers to ease their transition back to work and analyzing job language in position descriptions to remove gender-biased language.

She is also a tireless advocate for the next generation. Through her groundbreaking achievements, she has shattered barriers, opened doors, and empowered underrepresented communities to pursue their dreams.

Dr. Wendy Okolo is proof that the most important breakthroughs happen when we expand who gets to be in the room. From the classrooms of Queen’s College in Lagos to the research labs of Silicon Valley, she has redefined what aerospace engineering looks like and who it belongs to.

Today In Black History

• In 1850, the California Fugitive Slave Law was adopted, authorizing any slave owner claiming a runaway slave to obtain a warrant for the slave’s arrest.

• In 1861, President Abraham Lincoln called for 75,000 troops to put down the Confederate rebellion, but his administration rejected Black volunteers.

• In 1896, Booker T. Washington was awarded an honorary degree from Harvard University.

• In 1929, Oscar DePriest was sworn in as a congressman from Illinois, becoming the first Black congressman from the North.

• In 1947, Jackie Robinson became the first African American to play in Major League Baseball, playing for the Brooklyn Dodgers.

• In 1959, African Freedom Day was declared at the All-African People’s Conference in Accra, Ghana.

• In 1960, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee was founded at Shaw University.

• In 1980, the African nation of Zimbabwe, formally known as Rhodesia, gained its independence from the United Kingdom.

• In 1996, the South African Truth Commission, formed to look into abuses during the apartheid era, began its public hearings.

• In 2019, Aretha Franklin was posthumously awarded the Pulitzer Prize Special Citation honor, becoming the first individual woman to win the honor since 1930.

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The Legacy of Lt. General Russel Honoré: A Leader Who Commanded with Integrity and Compassion

What do you remember about Hurricane Katrina in 2005? I remember the deaths, the destruction, the government’s non-readiness, and the incompetence of the people that G.W. Bush first appointed to deal with the aftermath. Remember when he said, “Heck of a job, Brownie!”

President Bush was referencing Michael Brown, the director of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). Bush made this comment on September 2, 2005, while touring areas devastated by Hurricane Katrina, intending to praise Brown's efforts despite growing criticism of FEMA's response.

The Army Corps of Engineers warned authorities in Louisiana and New Orleans months earlier that the levees would not hold, but the warnings were ignored. Enter 3-star Lt. General Russel Honoré.

Lt. General Russel Honoré stands as one of the most distinguished military leaders in American history, a trailblazer whose career spanned decades and whose impact extended far beyond the battlefield. Born and raised in Louisiana, Honoré’s journey from a young man with a dream to a three-star general exemplifies the power of dedication, strategic thinking, and unwavering commitment to service.

Honoré’s military career began when he enlisted in the United States Army, and he eventually earned his commission as an officer. Throughout his career, he served in numerous significant positions, including command of the First Army, one of the largest and most important commands in the U.S. Army. His leadership style was characterized by a unique blend of military precision and genuine care for his personnel, earning him the respect and loyalty of soldiers at every level.

His famous statement to the people he oversaw was: “Don’t get stuck on stupid.”

Hailing from Lakeland, Louisiana, Honoré was commissioned as a second lieutenant of the infantry in 1971 upon graduating with a degree in vocational agriculture from Southern University and A&M College.

Honoré served in a variety of infantry command positions throughout his career and took command of the First Army based at Fort Gillem outside Atlanta. He also served as the vice director for operations, J-3, The Joint Staff, focusing on military support to civil authorities.

Before the fateful 2005 hurricane season, Honoré had helped coordinate the U.S. response to flooding in Venezuela in 1999 and Mozambique in 2000.

He also oversaw the military’s response to the 1986 space shuttle Columbia disaster and the sniper shootings in the Washington, DC, area in 2002.

One of the defining moments of Honoré’s career came in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina in 2005. As the commander of Joint Task Force Katrina, he led one of the largest humanitarian and disaster relief operations in American military history. His swift and decisive action, combined with his empathy for the suffering citizens of New Orleans and the Gulf Coast, transformed him into a national figure. Honoré’s famous phrase, “We will meet the challenges and the moment,” became emblematic of his resolute determination to restore order and dignity to a region devastated by nature’s fury. His leadership during this crisis demonstrated that military strength could be paired with compassion and social awareness.

Compare that with the responses to people (citizens and non-citizens) of the current employees of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), the Customs and Border Patrol (CBP), and FEMA, whom the current president declared should only help “red states.”

Beyond his military prowess, Honoré became an influential voice on climate resilience and environmental justice. He recognized that natural disasters disproportionately affect vulnerable communities and has advocated tirelessly for stronger disaster preparedness, infrastructure improvements, and equitable resource allocation. His work post-retirement has focused on building community resilience and ensuring that future generations are better prepared to face environmental challenges. He established the Honoré Initiative to focus on climate justice and community resilience, particularly in Louisiana and other vulnerable regions.

Honoré has also formed the GreenARMY, a coalition of community and environmental groups that works to address environmental issues in Louisiana.

Lt. General Honoré has also been a powerful advocate for diversity and inclusion within the military and broader society. As an African American officer who reached the highest echelons of military leadership, he himself represents breaking barriers and challenging systemic limitations. He has spoken candidly about the importance of representation in leadership. His mentorship of young officers and soldiers, regardless of background, has inspired countless individuals to pursue careers in service.

Throughout his life, Honoré has remained deeply connected to his Louisiana roots and has been an eloquent spokesperson for environmental justice and community empowerment. His books and public appearances have provided insights into leadership, resilience, and the importance of serving others. He has demonstrated that true leadership is not about wielding power for its own sake, but about using authority and influence to uplift communities and create positive change. (Emphasis is mine.)

Lt. General Russell Honoré’s legacy is one of service, integrity, and transformative leadership. Today, as we reflect on his contributions, we recognize him not just as a military commander but as a visionary leader whose influence continues to shape conversations about disaster preparedness, environmental justice, and the kind of compassionate leadership our nation needs.

Today In Black History

• In 1669, an African American man named Emmanuel was baptized into a Lutheran congregation in New York.

• In 1873, on Easter Sunday, an estimated 153 Black men were massacred in Colfax, Louisiana, while surrendering to a white mob of former Confederate soldiers and members of the Ku Klux Klan. The Colfax Massacre has been described as the worst incident of racial violence during Reconstruction.

• In 1907, Harlem Hospital opened.

• In 1944, South Carolina rejected Black Suffrage..

• In 1964, Sidney Poitier won the Best Actor Oscar for his role in “Lilies of the Field.”

• In 1966, President Lyndon Johnson nominated Andrew F. Brimmer, an economist and former Professor of Economics at the University of Pennsylvania, to serve as a Governor of the Federal Reserve System.

• In 1997, Eldridge Tiger Woods won the 61st Masters Tournament in Augustus, Georgia, at age 21, becoming the youngest winner of that tournament.

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I am a retired educator of all grades from Pre-K through university level, and I primarily taught English, government, and history. However, not only did I not learn about the Black Seminoles in school, but I also did not teach them, because I did not know about them.

I hope this post will help you learn about this important topic in American history.

John Horse stands as one of the most remarkable yet often overlooked figures in American military history—a man who led warriors across continents, commanded respect from diverse peoples, and fought tirelessly for freedom against overwhelming odds.

John Horse, also known as Juan Caballo, Juan Cavallo, John Cowaya, and Gopher John, was a man of mixed African and Seminole ancestry who fought alongside the Seminoles in the Second Seminole War in Florida. His surname “Horse” is believed to have been a translation of Cavallo (or Caballo, the Spanish word for horse).

Born around 1812 in Florida to a Black Seminole family, John Horse would become a legendary military strategist whose influence extended far beyond the borders of the United States. He rose to prominence in the third year of a seven-year war when the first generation of Black Seminole leaders was largely decimated, and the charismatic Seminole war leader Osceola was taken prisoner by the American military commander.

In 1818, the American General Andrew Jackson invaded the area, scattering the tribal peoples and their Black allies in the region. Jackson also destroyed settlements and seized Blacks from among the Seminole for removal to the north and returned to plantation slavery.

During the Second Seminole War (1835-1842), John Horse emerged as a principal leader of the Black Seminoles, a distinct community of African Americans who had found refuge among the Seminole Nation. Unlike many enslaved African Americans of his era, Horse lived as a free man within Seminole society, where Black Seminoles held a unique status—neither fully enslaved nor fully free, but occupying a space that allowed greater autonomy than available elsewhere in the American South.

Horse learned to read and write and acquired linguistic skills in English, Spanish, and the Hitchiti tongue spoken by the Oconee and many other Seminole bands. He was one of Osceola’s main translators when dealing with the Americans.

Horse’s military genius became evident in his strategic planning and tactical innovations. He worked alongside Osceola, the renowned Seminole resistance leader, coordinating military operations against superior U.S. forces.

What set Horse apart was his ability to organize and inspire fighters across racial and ethnic lines. He successfully unified Black Seminoles and Native Seminoles under a common cause, demonstrating leadership qualities that transcended the racial divisions so prevalent in nineteenth-century America. His understanding of guerrilla warfare and his deep knowledge of Florida’s terrain proved invaluable in frustrating American military campaigns.

When the U.S. government began enforcing Indian Removal policies designed to force southeastern tribes westward along the tragic Trail of Tears, John Horse recognized the existential threat to his people.

Despite their remarkable resistance, the Seminoles faced an enemy with seemingly unlimited resources. After years of brutal conflict and broken treaties, John Horse made the difficult decision to lead his people west.

In 1838-1839, he guided approximately 1,500 Black Seminoles on a forced march to Oklahoma, enduring disease, starvation, and violence along the way. Many perished during this journey, which ranks among the most harrowing chapters of American Indian removal history.

However, Horse’s story did not end in Oklahoma. Recognizing that even Indian Territory offered limited safety for his people, he embarked on an even more ambitious undertaking. In 1849-1850, he led a group of Black Seminoles south across Texas toward Mexico, seeking sanctuary in a foreign land.

This remarkable migration involved dangerous river crossings and navigation through hostile territory, yet Horse successfully brought his followers to Mexico, where they established settlements and found the freedom that the United States had denied them.

In Mexico, John Horse continued his military service, eventually joining the Mexican army and rising to the rank of Colonel. He established a settlement called Nacimiento de los Negros and became a trusted military advisor, continuing to lead warriors in defense of Mexican territories against Apache and Comanche raids. His reputation as a brilliant military strategist earned him respect throughout the region.

John Horse’s legacy exemplifies the courage and ingenuity of Black Seminoles, who created and defended their own autonomous space within American history despite systemic oppression.

Today In Black History

• In 1924, South Africa passed the Industrial Conciliation Act No. 11 to provide for job reservation for whites only, exclude Blacks from membership in registered trade unions, and prohibit the registration of Black trade unions.

• In 1953, Jomo Kenyatta, the founding father of the African nation of Kenya, was convicted of involvement with the Mau Mau rebellion and sentenced to 7 years in jail.

• In 1960, the U.S. Senate passed a Civil Rights bill that included measures against discriminatory voting practices.

• In 1974, Hank Aaron hit his 715th home run, breaking Babe Ruth’s major league record.

• In 1975, baseball outfielder Frank Robinson was named manager of the Cleveland Indians, becoming the first Black manager in Major League Baseball history.

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AI-generated graphic illustrating all-white sundown towns with no Black residents after dark.

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I am a child of the 1950s and 1960s, so I certainly remember overt racism, Jim Crow, and the Civil Rights movement.

As a matter of fact, the only reason I was born and raised in Detroit is that my late father, an infectious diseases specialist like Dr. Fauci, could not get hired in St. Louis, where my parents met and planned to live after they got married.

One of my father’s childhood friends from Arkansas, where they were born and raised, was already living in Detroit and told my father that Detroit was hiring “colored people.” So my Dad applied to the Detroit Health Department, was hired, and worked there at Herman Kiefer Hospital his whole medical career.

Many of the members of both my parents’ families moved North during the “Great Migration,” but many others stayed in the South. Traveling from South to North or North to South for vacations or visiting family was rife with covert and overt dangers for “colored people” in those days. We weren’t allowed to stay in most hotels or patronize restaurants.

We cooked food ahead of time and ate at isolated picnic tables along the way. I remember my mother filling a Thermos with hot coffee for my father to drink while he was driving.

In the late 1950s, my father learned about a Black man who had purchased a group of eight cabins on a lake outside Mackinaw City in northern the lower peninsula of Michigan. For about seven or eight years, members of our family would travel from all over the country, including Los Angeles, to stay in the cabins we rented for one or two weeks. My uncle, who was a doctor in Tyler, Texas, packed his family into their Cadillac (did I mention that he was a doctor?) and drove straight through to “Mackinaw,” as we fondly called it.

At a time when Black people weren’t allowed in swimming pools or at beaches in the United States, our family swam, fished, played cards and other board games, and listened to the radio (there were no TVs at the cabins). We didn’t have to worry about racism or violence during those weeks, although we certainly knew what was going on.

Our family members had to travel to Mackinaw to get away from it all, the way they did, because across America, in addition to avoiding hotels and restaurants, there was a troubling chapter of history that many people know little about: sundown towns. These were communities that basically said “no Black people allowed”—some spelled it out in the law, others enforced it through intimidation and violence. The name comes from an unspoken but deadly serious rule: African Americans had to leave town before the sun went down, or face serious consequences. It’s a key part of understanding why our neighborhoods look so divided today.

These towns really took off in the late 1800s and early 1900s, right when millions of Black Americans were heading north looking for better lives and escape from Jim Crow laws down South. White communities saw this as a threat and decided to stop it. Some towns passed laws banning Black residents outright. Others used intimidation and violence instead. That warning—”don’t let the sun set on you in this town”—wasn’t just words; it was a deadly threat that everybody understood.

You’d find sundown towns all over the Midwest—Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan (the Detroit suburb of Livonia in Wayne County is a famous example), and many other places nationwide. Historian James Loewen documented hundreds of them in his book Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension of American Racism. His research showed these weren’t random acts; they were systematic features built into American geography through real estate rules, property deed restrictions, and police enforcement.

These towns used many different tricks to keep themselves all-white. Some put it in writing—property deeds had clauses saying you couldn’t sell to Black families. Towns would put sundown ordinances on the books, even if they rarely needed to enforce them officially; the threat alone did the job. The real enforcement came from the threat of violence and police looking the other way when mobs attacked. Black families trying to move in faced burned homes, violence, and intimidation.

Here’s something that might surprise you: sundown towns were mostly a Northern and Midwest problem, not just a Southern one. Illinois, Ohio, and Indiana had some of the most deliberately segregated towns in America. Nobody talks about it as much because it wasn’t written into law the way Jim Crow was in the South—but it was just as real and just as damaging. These towns blocked Black families from buying homes in neighborhoods where property values were going up, cutting them off from one of the biggest ways ordinary people build wealth.

The old sundown laws are technically off the books now, and you can’t enforce those property deed restrictions anymore. But here’s the thing—the legacy is still very much alive. A lot of these old sundown towns are still almost completely white today. Property values are higher, schools are better funded, and neighboring Black communities stayed poor. Real estate agents still steer people of color away from certain neighborhoods. Banks still discriminate in mortgages. The barriers are just less obvious now, but they’re still working.

Modern exclusion works differently than it did a hundred years ago—you don’t see the violence anymore. Instead, it’s more subtle: really expensive houses, strict zoning laws, barely any affordable housing. These mechanisms still keep people of color out. Some communities look exactly like they did during the sundown town era, which raises the question: Did anything actually change, or did discrimination just get quieter?

Sundown towns are a hidden but crucial part of American racism. They show us that segregation wasn’t accidental or inevitable—it was deliberately built and deliberately maintained through laws, violence, and social pressure. Even though the era of explicit sundown towns is over, the damage lives on in neighborhoods, property values, school quality, and wealth gaps that persist today. Understanding this history is key to fixing the residential segregation we see now and all its ripple effects on Black families’ wealth, health, education, and opportunities.

Today In Black History

• In 1909, Black arctic explorer Matthew A. Henson, an ancestor of award-winning actress Taraji P. Henson, became the first non-Inuit person (ahead of Robert Peary) to reach the North Pole.

• In 1931, the trial began for the nine “Scottsboro Boys” who were falsely accused of raping two white women.

• In 1941, Italian forces holding the Ethiopian capital, Addis Ababa, surrendered to the Ethiopian army.

• In 1968, Oakland, CA, police killed Black Panther Bobby Hutton, but another Black Panther member, Eldridge Cleaver, was charged with attempted murder for his participation in the shootout.

• In 1987, LA Dodgers General Manager Al Campanis appeared on ABC News’ “Nightline” and said he believed Blacks were “not equipped” for baseball management.

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The Origins and Evolution of “Uncle Ben’s” and “Aunt Jemima”

The brands formerly known as “Uncle Ben’s” and “Aunt Jemima” are among the most recognizable food labels in American history. Yet their origins are deeply intertwined with 19th-century racial stereotypes rooted in slavery and minstrel culture. Over more than a century, both brands evolved—first attempting to soften their imagery, and eventually abandoning their original identities altogether.

19th-Century Origins: Language, Stereotypes, and Minstrelsy

The terms “Aunt” and “Uncle,” when applied to Black Americans in the 19th and early 20th centuries, were not neutral honorifics. They emerged from a racist social system in which white Americans avoided using respectful titles like “Mr.” or “Mrs.” for Black adults. Instead, Black men and women were often addressed as “uncle,” “auntie,” or by their first names—terms that implied familiarity while reinforcing social inferiority.

These naming conventions overlapped with popular entertainment of the time, particularly minstrel shows. These performances featured white actors in blackface portraying caricatured Black characters. One of the most enduring stereotypes was the “mammy” figure: a loyal, cheerful Black woman devoted to serving white families. The name “Aunt Jemima” itself came from a minstrel song from the 1870s, embedding the brand in this tradition from its inception.

Similarly, the “Uncle” figure reflected a paternal, non-threatening Black male archetype—often older, subservient, and detached from authority or independence. These caricatures were widely used in advertising during the late 19th and early 20th centuries to evoke nostalgia for the antebellum South.

The Creation of “Aunt Jemima”

The Aunt Jemima brand began in 1888–1889 as one of the first ready-made pancake mixes. From the start, it relied on the mammy stereotype as its central marketing image.

Nancy Green, a formerly enslaved woman, was hired to portray Aunt Jemima at the 1893 World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago. Her performance helped popularize the brand nationwide.

The character was depicted as a smiling, headscarf-wearing cook—an image designed to evoke the romanticized idea of enslaved Black women happily serving white households. Over time, this portrayal became one of the most enduring examples of racial stereotyping in American advertising.

Throughout the 20th century, the company made periodic updates to the character—removing the headscarf, modernizing her appearance, and softening overtly stereotypical features. However, critics argued that these changes did little to address the brand’s underlying origins.

The Creation of “Uncle Ben’s”

The Uncle Ben’s brand emerged in the mid-20th century, introduced by Mars, Inc. Its name and imagery followed a similar pattern of racialized representation. The term “Uncle” echoed the same historical practice of addressing Black men without formal respect, while the brand’s logo featured an elderly Black man dressed in formal attire.

The character was reportedly inspired in part by a real Chicago maître d’ named Frank Brown, though the branding itself was fictionalized and detached from any authentic biography.

Like Aunt Jemima, Uncle Ben’s relied on a reassuring, service-oriented Black persona—one that suggested warmth and trustworthiness while remaining rooted in a history of racial hierarchy. Critics have described this imagery as a “happy servant” trope, reinforcing outdated and harmful stereotypes.

Gradual Evolution and Mounting Criticism

By the late 20th century, both brands faced increasing scrutiny. Civil rights movements and academic scholarship highlighted how such imagery perpetuated distorted narratives of Black life and history.

Companies responded incrementally. Aunt Jemima’s appearance was modernized, and Uncle Ben’s image was refined to appear more dignified—sometimes even portrayed in corporate settings. Yet these changes were widely seen as cosmetic rather than substantive. The core issue—the names and their historical connotations—remained unaddressed.

The 2020 Turning Point

The turning point came in 2020, amid widespread protests following the killing of George Floyd and a broader reckoning with systemic racism in the United States. Corporations faced renewed pressure to examine their branding practices.

Quaker Oats acknowledged that Aunt Jemima was “based on a racial stereotype” and announced that the brand would be retired.

Mars, the parent company of Uncle Ben’s, is similarly committed to “evolving” its brand identity.

These decisions marked a significant departure from earlier efforts. Instead of updating imagery, companies chose to remove the names and characters entirely.

Rebranding and Erasure of Origins

The Aunt Jemima brand was officially renamed Pearl Milling Company in 2021, referencing the original mill that produced the pancake mix in the 19th century.

Uncle Ben’s was rebranded as Ben’s Original, dropping both the “Uncle” honorific and the portrait of the Black man from its packaging.

These changes did more than alter logos—they effectively severed the brands from their historical identities. The new branding emphasizes neutrality, inclusivity, and product quality rather than character-driven storytelling.

The removal of these names and images raises complex questions. On one hand, the rebrands represent a clear acknowledgment that the original imagery was rooted in racism. On the other hand, critics argue that erasing these symbols risks obscuring the historical realities they reflect.

Yet even as the names and images disappear, the history behind them remains essential. Understanding that history is key not only to evaluating these brands, but also to recognizing how cultural narratives are constructed—and, eventually, transformed.

Today In Black History

• In 1866, the U.S. Congress rejected a presidential veto that would have given all people equal rights in the United States.

• In 1868, Hampton University, previously known as Hampton Institute, was founded by Samuel Chapman Armstrong as a school for Black students in Hampton, Virginia. The undergraduate school is still called Hampton Institute.

• In 1924, Northern Rhodesia became a protectorate of the UK and was appointed as governor.

• In 1929, the Atlanta University Affiliation was established between Morehouse College, Spelman College, and Atlanta University.

• In 1949, “Happy Pappy,” the first Black variety talent show series with an all-Black cast, aired on WENR-TV with Ray Grant as the host.

• In 1966, the first World Festival of Negro Arts began in Dakar, Senegal.

• In 1989, six-time all-star first baseman Bill White was elected as the first Black president of the National Baseball League.

• In 1991, the U.S.Supreme Court ruled that jurors cannot be barred from serving due to race.

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Ethiopian Empress Taytu Betul stands as one of Africa’s most influential and formidable women, whose strategic intellect and military prowess shaped the destiny of her nation during a critical period of colonial expansion. Born in 1840, Taytu ultimately became empress from 1889 to 1913, and one of the key architects of Ethiopia’s resistance against European imperialism.

As the third wife of Emperor Menelik II, who was her fourth husband, Taytu wielded considerable influence over state affairs at a time when few women held any political power. She was also a military strategist, a political advisor, and a fierce patriot who actively participated in governance decisions. During the Italo-Ethiopian War (1895-1896), Taytu, meaning “sun” in Amharic, proved instrumental in mobilizing support for the Ethiopian cause.

Taytu’s influence also strengthened the Ethiopian Orthodox Church’s role in national life and promoted education. She was known for her intelligence, her command of multiple languages, and her diplomatic acumen. Just as her husband, Emperor Menelik II, was about to sign an “understanding” to set up Ethiopia as a “protectorate” of Italy, Taytu grabbed the documents, written in Italian and Amharic, and tore them up because she saw them for what they really were: an attempt by Italy to colonize Ethiopia.

Taytu’s most celebrated achievement was her pivotal role at the Battle of Adwa on March 1, 1896. This decisive victory against the Italian army not only secured Ethiopian independence but also became a symbol of African resistance against colonialism. Taytu personally led troops into battle, and her actions during that time demonstrated that gender was no barrier to leadership during moments requiring the nation’s defense.

The Ethiopian victory at Adwa stands out globally as one of the few instances where an African nation successfully repelled a European colonial power, earning Taytu a place among history’s greatest military leaders. Ethiopia is the only African nation that was never colonized by Europe.

Taytu Betul also founded Addis Ababa, Ethiopia’s current capital city.

Taytu’s legacy symbolized the potential for women’s leadership and agency during an era when such visibility was extraordinary. She challenged prevailing assumptions about women’s capabilities and demonstrated that history’s crucial turning points can pivot on the decisions and actions of women. Her example inspired subsequent generations of African women to claim space in public and political life.

Taytu Betul’s life reminds us that history’s great movements are often shaped by the contributions of women whose names deserve to be remembered alongside the most celebrated figures of their era. Today, Taytu Betul is honored as a national hero in Ethiopia, a symbol of resistance, courage, and the indomitable spirit that preserved African independence.

Today In Black History

• In 1870, the 15th Amendment to the Constitution was ratified, giving Black men the right to vote.

• In 1912, the French protectorate in Morocco was established.

• In 1941, the National Urban League presented a one-hour program over a national radio network, urging equal protection for Blacks in the national defense program.

• In 1960, 18 Southern University students were suspended for their involvement in lunch counter sit-ins and anti-segregation rallies.

• In 1963, Captain Edward J. Dwight, Jr. became the first Black candidate for astronaut training.

• In 2013, Kenya’s Supreme Court declared Uhuru Kenyatta the rightful winner of the Kenyan presidential election.

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Photo Credit: PBS

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I admit that I am not much of a movie-goer. In 2025, I saw only two movies at the theater: “Avatar Fire and Ash” and “Sinners.” The cinematography for both films was outstanding, but “Sinners” stood above and beyond and quite rightfully won the top Oscar for its cinematographer, Autumn Arkapaw.

Autumn Cheyenne Durald Arkapaw stands as one of the most accomplished cinematographers in contemporary cinema, breaking barriers and setting new standards in a field that has historically been dominated by men. Her innovative visual storytelling and technical mastery have earned her recognition on the highest stages of the film industry, including Academy Award wins that cement her legacy as a groundbreaking artist and visionary.

She was born on December 14, 1979, into a family that valued creativity and artistic expression. She is of Filipino descent on her mother’s side (with roots in Pampanga) and Black Creole descent on her father’s side. She has described her maternal grandfather, Guillermo Pagan Bautista of Pampanga, who was a resistance fighter during the Japanese occupation of the Philippines and a survivor of the Bataan Death March, “the most important man in my life” and “one of the biggest influences on my childhood and my family”.

Arkapaw developed an early fascination with how light, shadow, and composition could convey emotion and meaning. She pursued formal training in cinematography, where she distinguished herself through a distinctive visual language and an ability to interpret directors’ visions while adding her own artistic perspective. Her education and early experiences shaped her philosophy that cinematography is far more than technical expertise—it is a storytelling medium in its own right.

Throughout her career, Arkapaw has collaborated with some of the most respected filmmakers in the world, bringing her signature style to films that span multiple genres. Her work is characterized by a deep understanding of color theory, lighting design, and camera movement that serve the narrative.

Her breakthrough came with a series of critically acclaimed films that showcased her ability to create visually stunning worlds while maintaining intimate connections to her characters’ emotional journeys. These early successes established her reputation as a cinematographer who could enhance any director’s vision while bringing her own artistic sensibility to the screen. Critics praised her work for its beauty, intentionality, and profound understanding of visual language.

Photo Credit: IndieWire

Arkapaw shot the 2025 film Sinners on 65 mm film using a combination of IMAX 15-perf and Ultra Panavision 70 cameras, which made her the first female director of photography to shoot any movie on large-format IMAX film. For her work on Sinners, she became the first woman of color to be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Cinematography, becoming the first female cinematographer, first black person, and first Filipino to win in the category.

Autumn Durald Arkapaw also served as the Director of Photography for Marvel’s Black Panther: Wakanda Forever (2022). She used her high-contrast, emotionally charged, large-format visual style to explore the themes of grief and strength following Chadwick Boseman’s death. She was recommended for the project by Rachel Morrison, the cinematographer for the first Black Panther film.

Arkapaw’s Oscar wins represent significant milestones not just for her personally, but for the broader film community. Her recognition by the Academy has inspired countless aspiring cinematographers, particularly those from underrepresented communities, to pursue their artistic visions and believe that their voices matter in cinema.

Beyond her work as a cinematographer, Arkapaw has become an advocate for diversity and inclusion within the film industry. She has spoken openly about her experiences and the barriers she has faced, while also mentoring emerging cinematographers and working to create more opportunities for underrepresented artists.

Her technical innovations have also influenced how contemporary cinematography is taught and practiced. Other cinematographers study her work to understand how she achieves her effects and how she makes artistic choices that serve each specific story.

From intimate dramas to large-scale productions, she adapts her visual language to serve the story while maintaining the distinctive qualities that make her work recognizable and respected.

Autumn Cheyenne Durald married Australian cinematographer Adam Arkapaw in 2015. They have one child.

Today, we celebrate the achievements of Autumn Arkapaw and acknowledge not only her extraordinary contributions to cinema but also her role in paving the way for future generations of cinematographers. Arkapaw exemplifies the power of artistic excellence combined with a commitment to community—a true testament to her status as one of cinema’s most important contemporary artists.

Today In Black History

• In 1807, the British Parliament abolished the slave trade throughout the British Empire.

• In 1895, Italian troops invaded Abyssinia (Ethiopia) but failed to colonize the African nation.

• In 1910, the Liberian Commission recommended financial aid and the establishment of a U.S. Navy coaling station in Liberia.

• In 1931, the Scottsboro Boys, nine young African-American males, were falsely arrested and charged with raping two white women and collectively served over 100 years in prison. This case also finally established African Americans’ right to serve on juries.

• In 1958, Black boxing champion Sugar Ray Robinson became the first boxer to win a world championship five times.

• In 1965, the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., along with thousands of other civil rights leaders and supporters, completed the Selma to Montgomery March, which took four days, despite attacks on many marchers.

• In 1966, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the “poll tax” was unconstitutional.

• In 1975, Salem Poor, who, along with Peter Salem, fought in the American Revolutionary War with other Black soldiers at the Battle of Bunker Hill and Breed’s Hill, was commemorated on a U.S. postage stamp.

• In 1991, future EGOT (Emmy, Grammy, Oscar, and Tony) winner Whoopi Goldberg won an Academy Award for best supporting actress for her role in the movie “Ghost.” She was the second Black woman to win this award after Hattie McDaniel for “Gone with the Wind.”

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Philippa Schuyler was born on August 2, 1931, to an extraordinary and unconventional family. Her father, George Schuyler, was a renowned and influential Black journalist and social commentator. Her mother, Josephine Cogdell, was a blond, blue-eyed Texan heiress who broke racial barriers through her marriage to George. Josephine was an intellectual trailblazer who believed strongly in the potential of interracial unions and was convinced that cultural and genetic diversity could strengthen society.

Her mother subscribed to unconventional nutritional practices, believing that raw foods—including uncooked meat—preserved vital vitamins and nutrients. While these parenting methods were certainly unusual by mid-20th century standards, the Schuyler household was a place where ideas were debated, music filled the air, and excellence was expected.

Philippa’s upbringing followed the recommendation of the behavioral psychologist John B. Watson that a child should never be hugged or kissed, and her mother’s journals contain numerous references to beating, whipping, and slapping. The approach may have been unconventional, but the results were spectacular. When Philippa was not yet three, she had a 500-word reading and writing vocabulary, and when she was 5, her IQ was measured at 180. She displayed musical talent at a very early age and made her first public broadcast appearance as a pianist at the age of four. Shortly before her fifth birthday, she entered her first musical competition and, in addition to playing four set pieces, performed six of her own compositions, winning a gold seal certificate.

By her teenage years, she had earned recognition from some of the most respected figures in American music. Legendary conductor Leonard Bernstein and renowned composer Virgil Thomson both recognized her exceptional abilities. She performed with five leading American orchestras while still in her teens and made her debut with the New York Philharmonic at 16 years old.

Her compositions and performances were favorably compared to those of American masters such as Aaron Copland and Marc Blitzstein. As a pianist, she demonstrated technical mastery and emotional depth that captivated audiences. Her future in music seemed limitless, and the classical music establishment appeared ready to embrace her as a major talent.

Yet despite her remarkable achievements, Philippa’s life was marked by profound contradictions and challenges. As the daughter of a Black man and a white woman at a time when interracial marriage was illegal in many American states, she navigated a deeply segregated society. She was often treated as an outsider in different circles—never fully accepted by either Black or white audiences due to her mixed heritage. This position on the margins of society, while providing a unique perspective, also subjected her to discrimination and prejudice.

In the mid-1940s, it became clear that Philippa’s color was an insurmountable barrier to her career as a soloist in America, so she switched her focus to composing. Her Manhattan Nocturne was performed and broadcast in April 1945 at a New York Philharmonic Young People’s Concert, and this marked the emergence of Philippa Schuyler, the composer. Twelve months later, she made her debut in the dual role of pianist and composer with the New York Philharmonic at Lewisholm Stadium.

As a woman in a male-dominated classical music world, Philippa faced gender-based expectations and limitations. She was talented and ambitious, but the institutions of her era were not structured to support women composers and conductors. This profoundly shaped her worldview.

Despite a limited number of high-profile concerts for white audiences, Philippa’s appeal remained largely confined to the African American community. In a Look Magazine profile, she was described as “The Shirley Temple of American negroes” and her appearance with Arthur Fiedler in Boston was in the ghetto of the “Colored American night at the Pops”. Philippa later wrote that it was in the late 1940s that she became intellectually aware of America’s racial prejudice. Her insecurity was further fueled by the increasing realization that her mother viewed her simply as a genetic and behavioral experiment whose success was due to nutrition and training rather than natural talent.

Her European debut was made with the BBC Symphony Orchestra in 1953, and during her visit to England, she formed a lasting friendship with the Black Guyanese conductor Rudolph Dunbar, while the African American Everett Lee conducted several of the orchestras that accompanied her on her tours.

As Philippa matured, she became increasingly conscious of the systemic injustices she experienced and witnessed. Rather than remain in the classical music establishment that had lauded her talents, she made the bold decision to pursue journalism—a field that allowed her to address social and political issues directly.

Her Black father had made the extraordinary political journey from moderate left to the extreme right. In his later years, George Schuyler was described by a Harlem friend as politically to the right of Barry Goldwater, and he finally fell from grace after writing a front-page article for an ultra-conservative newspaper condemning the award of the Nobel Peace Prize to Martin Luther King.

In 1959, Philippa started to experiment with her ambiguous ethnicity by describing herself as ‘white’ on visa applications. This allowed her to travel to South Africa, which was then in the grip of apartheid, and during her brief visit, she was championed by white residents.

Philippa discovered the vocation of political journalism when she found herself in the Congo in 1960, as the country lurched towards independence. As well as a journalist, she was a prolific author whose output included a semi-apocryphal autobiography, two novels, non-fiction books on the Congo and Vietnam, and a feminist tract. Her new career as a journalist was confirmed when she returned to the Congo to report with a United Press International accreditation.

She became an accomplished journalist and writer, using her voice to report on important issues and give a voice to the voiceless. Her transition from concert pianist to investigative journalist reflected her deepening commitment to social justice and her refusal to be confined by expectations or tradition. She brought the same intellectual rigor and passion to her journalism as to her music.

On May 9, 1967, she was traveling on a US military helicopter to Da Nang, en route to America for a recital at New York’s Town Hall. When it was ten miles from its destination, the Lycoming UH-1D crashed into Da Nang Bay, and Philippa and two others were killed. Two years later, her mother, Josephine Schuyler, hung herself.

Philippa Schuyler refused to be defined by a single role or achievement and instead pursued truth and justice wherever her conscience led her.

Much of the information in this article came from an article, “On an Overgrown Path.”

Today In Black History

• In 1956, the African nation of Sudan declared its independence from a joint British/Egyptian ruling coalition. South Sudan became an independent country on July 9, 2011.

• In 1971, Rev. Walter Fauntroy became the first nonvoting congressional delegate from the District of Columbia since Reconstruction.

• In 2010, President Barack Obama signed the ACA (Affordable Care Act) into law.

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Betty Reid Soskin was born on February 6, 1921, in my hometown of Detroit, Michigan. Her parents, natives of Louisiana, were of Creole and Cajun heritage, and her great-grandmother had been born into slavery in 1846.

After spending her early childhood in New Orleans, Betty’s family relocated to Oakland, California, in 1927, following the destruction of their home and business by a hurricane and flood.

During World War II, she made history as one of the first African American women to serve in the United States military, joining the Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service (WAVES) in the Navy. Her service challenged the systemic racism that defined the era. She worked as a file clerk for the all-Black union auxiliary of the Boilermakers Union A-36, filing change-of-address cards for workers who moved frequently.

In June 1945, Betty and her then-husband, Mel Reid, founded Reid’s Records in Berkeley, California, specializing in gospel music. The family endured significant racism and was subject to death threats after they built a home in a white suburb.

In the 1960s, Betty Reid became well-known as a songwriter for the civil rights movement. Betty divorced her husband, Mel Reid, in 1972 and subsequently married William Soskin, a psychology professor at the University of California, Berkeley.

After Mel Reid’s health began to decline, Betty took over the management of the music store and became a prominent community activist. The record store closed in 2019.

Betty later served as a field representative for California State Assemblywomen Dion Aroner and Loni Hancock, and became actively involved in the early planning stages and development of a park to memorialize the role of women on the home front during World War II. Those efforts came to fruition when Rosie the Riveter World War II Home Front National Historical Park was established in 2000, to provide a site where future generations could remember the contributions women made to the war effort.

During the building planning sessions for the Historical Park, Betty said that, often, she “was the only person in the room who had any reason to remember that ... what gets remembered is a function of who’s in the room doing the remembering.”

In 2003, she left her state job and became a consultant at the park she helped create, then, at age 85, became a National Park Service ranger at the Rosie the Riveter Park in 2007.

Soskin’s duties included conducting park tours and serving as an interpreter, explaining the park’s purpose, history, various sites, and museum collections to park visitors.

For nearly two decades, she served as a docent and guide, sharing her firsthand knowledge of the home front experience during the Second World War. But more significantly, she became an ardent advocate for preserving and telling the stories of African American women who contributed to the war effort—stories that had been systematically erased from mainstream historical narratives.

Betty Reid Soskin released her memoir, Sign My Name to Freedom, in February 2018. A feature-length documentary about her involvement with music, also titled Sign My Name to Freedom, began filming in 2016.

Beyond her official duties, Betty Reid Soskin had been a powerful voice for truth-telling in American history. She consistently emphasized the importance of including diverse perspectives in historical accounts, particularly those of Black Americans whose contributions have been marginalized or completely omitted.

Here are just a few of the awards and commemorations Betty Reid Soskin received:

• She attended President Obama’s Inauguration in 2009 as a guest of Rep. George Miller.

• She received an Honorary Doctorate from California College of the Arts in 2011.

• She was recognized in the Congressional Record in 2016.

• She was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Arts and Letters from Mills College in 2017.

In celebration of her 100th birthday on September 22, 2021, the West Contra Costa Unified School District renamed Juan Crespí Middle School to Betty Reid Soskin Middle School.

A stage musical based on her life, Sign My Name to Freedom by Michael Gene Sullivan, with songs by Soskin, premiered by the San Francisco Bay Area Theatre Company in March 2024.

She had a stroke while working at the park in September 2019; yet she returned to work in a limited, informal capacity in January 2020. She retired from the National Park Service on March 31, 2022, as the oldest serving park ranger.

Soskin died at her home on December 21, 2025, at the age of 104.

Today In Black History

• In 1865, the Congress of the Confederate States of America adjourned for the last time.

• In 1877, President Rutherford B. Hayes appointed Frederick Douglass as marshal of the District of Columbia.

• In 1895, 200 African Americans left Savannah, Georgia, for Liberia.

• In 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9102, which created the War Relocation Authority that was charged with overseeing the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II.

• In 1972, the USS Jesse L. Brown, the first U.S. naval ship to be named after an African American naval officer, was launched.

• In 2002, Black Grammy Award-winning songwriter and singer Isaac Hayes was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.

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Barbara Johns: The Teenage Activist Who Challenged Segregation in School Facilities

On April 23, 1951, a sixteen-year-old girl named Barbara Johns organized a student strike at Moton High School in Farmville, Virginia, over unequal conditions in her Black school.

Barbara Ceppage Johns was born on March 6, 1935, in New York, but her family moved to Farmville, Virginia, when she was young. Black and white students attended separate schools with vastly unequal resources, including Moton High School, where Barbara was a junior.

The school was severely overcrowded and decrepit. Built to hold 180 students, it housed over 450. The building lacked proper heating in winter and cooling in summer. There were no cafeteria facilities, no gymnasium, and no adequate laboratory space for science classes. Meanwhile, the white high school in the same county had modern facilities and well-maintained buildings. The disparity was impossible to ignore for Barbara.

By the spring of 1951, frustration had reached a breaking point among Moton’s students. When the principal announced that construction on a new, still-inadequate building would take years to complete, Barbara and a group of student leaders decided to act. They devised a plan to stage a walkout—a student strike demanding equal educational facilities.

They convinced over 450 students to walk out of classes, accounting for nearly the entire student body. The strike lasted for two weeks, drawing attention from local and national media.

While the immediate strike didn’t secure better facilities at Moton, it caught the NAACP’s attention. Civil rights lawyers, including the legendary Thurgood Marshall, decided to use the Moton strike as a vehicle for challenging the constitutionality of segregation itself. What began as a student protest for better school conditions evolved into Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County—one of five cases consolidated under the landmark Brown v. Board of Education decision.

Barbara Johns’ name became synonymous with student activism and civil rights. Though she was not the plaintiff in the case (her uncle, Oliver Brown, lent his name to the consolidated case, though this case actually refers to the Davis case), her role as the instigator of the strike was crucial. The Supreme Court’s 1954 ruling in Brown v. Board of Education declared that “separate but equal” was unconstitutional—a decision that overturned decades of segregationist doctrine.

After the strike, Barbara faced significant backlash in Farmville. Her family, concerned for her safety and future, sent her to live with relatives in Philadelphia so she could continue her education. She graduated from high school there and later attended Drexel Institute of Technology. Barbara went on to become a teacher, a choice that reflected her commitment to education and youth empowerment.

Barbara Johns’ courage in organizing the Moton High School strike demonstrated that age is no barrier to activism and moral leadership.

Barbara Johns received a degree in library science from Drexel University. She married William Powell, raised five children, and lived in Philadelphia. Her commitment to education moved her to become a librarian for the Philadelphia school system. She served in this profession until her death from bone cancer in 1991.

Today In Black History

• In 1792, Denmark became the first country to ban the transatlantic slave trade, although the ban did not take effect until 1803. An estimated 120,000 enslaved Africans were transported to the West Indies aboard ships flying the Danish flag.

• In 1827, “Freedom’s Journal,” the first Black newspaper, published its first issue.

• In 1836, the Constitution of the Republic of Texas was approved, legalizing slavery.

• In 1870, Hiram R. Revels gave the first speech by a Black person before the U.S. Senate, opposing the readmission of Georgia to the Union without adequate safeguards for Black citizens.

• In 1903, Rev. Ernest Lyon was appointed as the Minister to Liberia.

• In 1922, Egypt gained its independence from Great Britain.

• In 1940, Frederick McKinley Jones was awarded a patent for his mobile refrigeration system for long-haul trucks. He co-founded the Thermo King Corporation and had several other inventions.

• In 1962, the University of the Virgin Islands was founded, becoming the first HBCU outside of the mainland United States.

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